AN EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION INTO SEXUAL HARASSMENT A CORRELATIONAL STUDY
Keywords:
Sexual harassment, educational level, marital statusAbstract
The prime aim of this study was to find out whether or not there is any
relationship between the marital status of women with sexual harassment;
and relationship between education level of women and sexual
harassment. Quantitative research design was employed in which
questionnaire was administered to 148 women of Balochistan. To analyse
the data, One-Way ANOVA test was employed in SPSS. The findings
revealed that married women reported higher intensity of sexual
harassment than single women did. Moreover, women with higher
education reported higher sexual harassment. This study can contribute
positively towards bringing more sensitized environmental changes
regarding sexual harassment. This study has implications on creating
awareness among people about a not so talked/ (commonly / ignored)
social issue of sexual harassment at work place.
References
Abida-Samiuddin, & Khanam, R. (2002). Muslim Feminism and Feminist
Movement: Central Asia. Global Vision Publishing House, 1st edition,
-87746-34-3.
Angle, H., & Perry, J. (1981). An empirical assessment of organizational
commitment and organizational effectiveness. Administrative
Science Quarterly, 26, 1-14.
Anila, (1998). Sexual harassment at workplaces and coping strategies
employed by women. Ph.D Thesis, National Institute of Psychology,
Centre of Excellence, Quaid-i-Azam University.
AnisAhmed, (1996). Women and social justice: An Islamic paradigm.
Institute of policy studies and the Islamic foundation, 2nd edition,
-448-004-3.
Antecol, H., & Cobb-Clark, D. (2006). The sexual harassment of female
active-duty personnel: Effects on job satisfaction and intentions to
remain in the military. Journal of Economic Behavior &
Organization, 61, 55-80.
Antecol, H., Barcus, V. E., & Cobb-Clark, D. (2009). Gender-biased
behavior at work: exploring the relationship between sexual
harassment and sex discrimination. Journal of Economic
Psychology, 30, 782-792.
Bell, M. P., McLaughlin, M. E., & Sequeira, J. M., (2002), Discrimination,
Harassment and the Glass ceiling: women executives as change
agents. Journal of Business Ethics, 37: 65-76.
Berdahl, J. I. (2007). Harassment based on sex: Protecting social status in
the context of gender hierarchy. Academy of Management Review,
, 2, 641-658.
Bhasin, Kamla (2000). Understanding gender. New Delhi, Kali for Women,
ISBN 8186706216.
Bond, M.A , Punnett, L., Pyle, J. L Cazeca, D., & Cooperman, M. (2004).
Gendered Work Conditions, Health, and Work Outcomes. Journal of
Occupational Health Psychology, 9, 28-45.
Brooks, L., & Perot, A. R. (1991). Reporting sexual harassment: Exploring a
predictive model. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 15, 31-47.
Brooks, L., & Perot, A. R. (1991). Reporting sexual harassment: Exploring a
predictive model. Psychology of Women Quarierly, 15, 31-47.
Browne, K. R. (2006). Sex, power, and dominance: The evolutionary
psychology of sexual harassment. Managerial and Decision
Economics, 27, 145-158.
Bularzik, M. (1978). Sexual harassment at the workplace: Historical notes.
Radical America, 12, 25-43.
Carothers, S. C., & Crull, P. (1984). Contrasting sexual harassment in
female and male dominated occupations. In K.B. Sacks & D. Remy
(Eds), My troubles are going to have irouble with me: Everyday
trails and triumphs of women workers (pp.219-227). New
Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Chaudhuri, P. (2007). Experiences of sexual harassment of women health
workers in four hospitals in Kolkata, India. Reproductive Health
Matters, 15 (30), 221-229.
Collins, E. G., & Blodgett, T. B. (1981). Sexual harassment: Some see it …
some won't. Harvard Business Review, 59, 76-95.
Constitution of Islamic Republic of Pakistan (1973). Government of
Pakistan.
Dzeich, B. W., & Weiner, L. (1984). The lecherous professor: Sexual
harassment on campus. Boston: Beacon.
Fitzgerald, L. F., & Swan, S. (1995). Why didn't she report him? The
psychological and legal implications of women's responses to sexual
harassment. Journal of Social Issues, 51(1), 117-138.
Fitzgerald, L. F., (1993). Sexual Harassment: Violence against women in
the workplace. American Psychologist, vol. 48, No. 10, 1070-1076.
Fitzgerald, L. F., Gelfand, M. J., & Drasgow, F. (1995). Measuring sexual
harassment: Theoretical and psychometric advances. Basic and
Applied Social Psychology, 17, 425—427.
Fitzgerald, L.F. & Ormerod, A.J. 1993. Breaking the silence: The sexual
harassment of women in academic and the work place. Psychology
of Women: A handbook of issues and theories, pp. 553-581. New
York, Greenwood Press.
Fitzgerald, L.F., & S.L. Shullman. 1993. "Sexual Harassment: A Research
Analysis and Agenda for the 1990s." Journal of Vocational Behavior,
, pp.5-27.
Fitzgerald, L.F., Drasgow, F. & Magley, V. J. (1999). Sexual harassment in
the Armed Forces: A test of an integrated model. Military
Psychology, 11(3), 329–343.
Fitzgerald, L.F., Drasgow, F., Hulin, Gelfand, & Magley, V. J. (1997).
Changed Women and Changed Organizations: Consequences of and
Coping with Sexual Harassment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82,
-89.
Fornes, J., Cardoso, M., Castello, J. M., & Gilli, M. (2011). Archives of
Psychiatric Nursing, 25, 3, 185-194.
Gervasio, A. H., & Ruckdeschel, (1992). College student's judgment of
verbal sexual harassment. Journal of Applied Social Psychology,
(3), 190-211.
Glass, B.L. 1988. Workplace harassment and the victimization of women.
Women’s Studies International Forum, 11 (1), pp.55-67.
Glomb, T. M., Munson, L. J., Hulin, C. L., Bergman, M. E., & Drasgow, F.
(1999). Structural equation models of sexual harassment:
longitudinal explorations and cross-sectional generalizations.
Journal of Applied Psychology ,84, 14–28.
Gunduz, N., Sunay, H., & Koz M. (2007). Incidents of sexual harassment in
turkey on elite sportswomen. The sports journal, 10, 2.
Gutek, B. A., Cohen, A. G., & Konrad, A. M. (1990). Predicting socialsexual behavior at work: A contact hypothesis. Academy of
Management Journal, 33(3), 560-577.
Haffmann, E. A. (2004). Selective sexual harassment: Differential
treatment of similar groups of women workers. Law and Human
Behavior, 28, 1, February 2004.
Hatch-Maillette, M.A., & Scalora, M. J. (2002). Gender, sexual
harassment, workplace violence, and risk assessment: Convergence
around psychiatric staff's perceptions of personal safety. Aggression
and violent behavior, 7 (2007) 271-291.
House, J. S., & Wells, J. A. (1978). Occupational stress, Social Support, and
Health. In Reducing Occupational Stress proceeding of a
conference. A. McLean, G. Black, and M. Colligen (eds:) DHEW
(NIOSH) publication 78-140.
Jaffri, M. S. (2004). The other half: Discrimination against women. Royal
book company, 969-407.
Kanekar, S., & Dhir, V. L. (1993). Sex related differences in perceptions of
sexual harassment of women in India. The Journal of Social
Psychology, 133(1), 119-120.
Kenig, S., & Ryan, J. (1986). Sex differences in the levels of tolerance nad
attribution of blame for sexual harassment on a university campus.
Sex Roles, 15, 535-549.
Kennair, L. E. O., & Bendixen, M. (2011).Socio-sexuality as predictor of
sexual harassment and coercion in female and male high school
students. Evolution & Human Behavior, 33, 5, 479-490.
Kirkham, L. M. (1997). Through the looking glass: viewing sexual
harassment within the accounting profession. Critical Perspectives
on Accounting, 8, 273-283.
Laband, D. N., & Lentz, B. F. (1998). The effects of sexual harassment on
job satisfaction, Earnings, and turnover among female lawyers.
Industrial and labor relations review, 51, 4.
Lafontaine, E., & Tredeau, L., (1986). The Frequency, Sources, and
Correlates of Sexual harassment among women in traditional male
occupations. Sex Roles, 15, 7/8, 1986.
Law, C. L., (2011). Sexual harassment and organizational outcomes.
Defense equal opportunity management institute, Technical report
(executive summary) 99-11.
Law, R., Dollard, M. F., Tuckey, M. R., & Dormann, C. (2011). Psychosocial
safety climate as a lead indicator of workplace bullying and
harassment, job resources, psychological health and employee
engagement. Accident Analysis and Prevention 43, 1782-1793.
Lengnick-Hall, M. L. 1995. Sexual harassment research: A methodological
critique. Personnel Psychology, 48: 841- 864.
Mangione, T. W., & Quinn, R. P. (1975). Job satisfaction,
counterproductive behavior and drug use at work. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 60, 114–116.
Merkin, S. R. (2008). The impact of sexual harassment on turnover
intentions, absenteeism and job satisfaction: Findings from
Argentina, Brazil and Chile. Journal of International women's
studies, 10, 02, November (2008).
Meyer, J., & Allen, N. (1997). Commitment in the workplace. Thousand
Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Meyer, J.P., Allen, N.J, & Smith, C.A. (1993). Commitment to
organizations and occupations: Extension and test of a threecomponent conceptualization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78,
-551.
Mobley, W. H., Horner, S. O., & Hollingsworth, A. T. (1978). An evaluation
of hospital employee turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63,
-414.
Morrow, P. C., McElroy, J. C., & Phillips, C. M. (1994). Sexual harassment
behaviors and work related perceptions and attitudes. Journal of
Vocational Behavior, 45, 295-309.
Munson, L. J., Hulin, C. L., & Drasgow, F. (2000). Longitudinal analysis of
dispositional influences and sexual harassment: Effects on job and
psychological outcomes. Personnel Psychology, 53, 21–46.
Naqvi, S. N. H. (1986). Frailty! Is thy name women? Essays in
Development Economics. Islamabad, PIDE.
O'Leary-Kelly, A. M., Paetzold, R. L., & Griffin, R. W., (2000). Sexual
harassment as aggressive behavior: An Actor-Based perspective.
Academy of Management Review, 25, 2, 372-388.
Pines, A. & Aronson, E. (1988). Career burnout: Causes and cures. New
York.
Popovich, P. M., & Warren, M. A. (2010). The role of power in sexual
harassment as a counterproductive behavior in organizations.
Human Resource Management Review, 20, 2, March (2010), 45-53.
Powell, G. N. (1986). Effects of sex roles identity and sex on definitions of
sexual harassment. Sex Roles, 14, 9-19.
Qamar-Jehan, (2000). Role of Women in Economic Development. Ph.D.
dissertation, University of Balochistan.
Quick, J. C., Murphy, L. R., & Hurrell, J. J. (1992). Stress and well-being at
work: Assessments and interventions for occupational mental
health. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Richman, J. et al., (1996). Perceived workplace harassment experiences
and problem drinking among physicians: Broadening the
stress/alienation paradigm, In Addiction, 1996, No. 91.
Robinson, S. L., & Bennett, R. J. (1995). A typology of deviant workplace
behaviors: A multidimensional scaling study. Academy of
Management Journal, 38, 2, 555-572.
Rospenda, K. M., Fujishiro, K., Shannon, C. A., & Richman, J. A. (2008).
Workplace harassment, stress, and drinking behavior over time:
Gender difference in a national sample. Addictive Behaviors, 33,
-967.
Rospenda, K. M., Richman, J. A., Ehmke, J. L.Z., & Zlatoper, K. W., (2005).
Is workplace Harassment Hazardous to your Health? Journal of
Business and Psychology, 20, 1.
Sabitha, M. (2008). Sexual harassment awareness training at workplace:
Can it effect administrators’ perception?, JOAAG, 3, 2.
Samuels, Harriet (2003) Sexual harassment in the workplace: a feminist
analysis of recent developments in the UK. Women's Studies
International Forum, 26 (5-6). pp. 467-482. 0277-5395.
Seashore, S. E., Lawler, E. E., Mirvis, P., & Cammann, C. (1982). Observing
and Measuring Organizational Change: A Guide to Field Practice.
Wiley, New York. The Free Press.
Sofola, Z. (1990). The need for human being on our educational
landscape. A key note address presented at a symposium on
curbing sexual harassment in educational institutions, organized by
the Kwara State Ministry of Education. Women Educational Unit,
Ilorin.
Stockdate, M. S. (1993). The role of sexual misperceptions of women's
friendliness in an emerging theory of sexual harassment. Journal of
Vocational Behaviour, 42(1), 84-101.
Studd, M. V. (1996). Sexual harassment. In D. M. Buss & N. M. Malamuth
(Eds.), Sex, power, conflict: Evolutionary and feminist perspectives.
New York: Oxford University Press.
Tata, J. (1993). The structure and phenomenon of sexual harassment:
Impact of category of sexually harassing behavior, gender, and
hierarchical level. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 23(3), 199-
Tett, R. P., & Meyer, J. P. (1993). Job satisfaction, organizational
commitment, turnover intentions, and turnover: Path analyses
based on meta-analytic findings. Personnel Psychology, 46(2), 259-
U. S. Merit Systems Protection Board (1987). Sexual harassment in the
federal workplace: An update. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office.
Weisz, R., & Karim, J., (2011), Weisz Communication Styles Inventory
(WCSI: version 1.0): development and validation, Procedia Social
and Behavioral Science 15 (2011), 2105-2116.
